Policies of Arab Socialist Regimes and their Successors Essay

Policies of Arab Socialist Regimes and their Successors - Essay Example The Arab socialism was led by President Gammel Abel Nasser while the success regime was led by Anwar Sadat and later the president Hosni Mubarak. Nasser ruled from his time of election in 1956 to his death in 1970. President Hosni Mubarak was elected after the death of his mentor Anwar Sadat. Comparison of the two regimes Mubarak was likened to Abel Nasser is some ways and was different in other factors that that made them different. For instance, Nasser used to make speeches that were scraping more thorns as Hosni did when he assumed the seat. Again, during the tutelage of Arab Socialism under Nasser, the cost of basic commodities was relatively low compared to the transitory regime of Hosni Mubarak. The Nasser and Mubarak regime were characterized by periods when the two leaders were not accepting bribes in the military army. The two leaders never showed any form of favoritism to anyone. At the time of President Nasser the nation was more secure one could walk along the streets without any fear, but at the time of Hosni the country was more insecure (Nordenman, 2012). President Nasser was much loved by the people of Egypt because of his friendly governance to the citizens. Nasser regime enjoyed the greater peace that was prevailing among the Arab nations, and people were much satisfied by political atmosphere of the time. During the time of Mubarak, the country was much insecure because it was a time when Muslim extremists from the army had assassinated the predecessor of President Hosni Mubarak.

Finding the Leader in You Essay Example for Free

Finding the Leader in You Essay A conference was held at the Saint Agnes Medical Center in Fresno on October 22, 2008 with an objective of teaching the audience how to find the leader in them. I should note that this event was the most informative and enlightening conference that I have ever attended. Stephanie Robinson, the first speaker of the conference, is the director of the Nursing Department of Fresno City College. Robinson began her lecture by providing some statistical data regarding numerous topics including how medication errors are taking a toll on the hospital’s financial resources in terms of lawsuits, recovery fees, and other expenses that are associated with those errors. Unfortunately, these errors have caused hospitals to lose large amounts of money, and, in order for them to regain these losses, they started to take every measure necessary to reduce those costs and add it to their profit. The measures that Robinson described included effective scheduling of the staff, preventive measures for medical errors, as well as a good, effective, and standardized patient charting. As a leader, it is the nurse’s responsibility to make sure that they chart every procedure done to and information about the patient. This will protect them against any liability issue that may arise, and to help them have a better charting documentation at the same time. Another way of reducing medication problems is an idea that some of the nurse leaders have come up with, which include e-charting and medication dispensing machines with scanners and barcode technology. This would require nurses to double check their orders and the medications before giving it to the patients. All those statistical data that were presented demonstrated that all the errors committed were preventative, and they could dramatically be reduced if proper safety measures were taken. According to the speaker, education is the most important contributing factor to prevent these extra high costs. As she was saying, we are all living in a digital world where we have access to many resources, yet our busy schedules and everyday problems would not let us research or attend any meetings. Here, the speaker used a very interesting example indicating that we use places such as airports, shopping malls, and even gas stations to provide healthcare and other health related information to people, but we refuse to take some time and provide basic education to our own people at their very own work places. As responsible leaders, it is their duty to provide constant education to their staff. They are also required to observe the activities of their staff at all times. Again as the statistics show, the high number of preventable medical situations such as post operative infections, medication errors, and other complications happens in hospitals settings, and unfortunately these make hospitals look very unsafely and defeats their prime purpose, which is to heal and provide medical care. We can use technology to provide education to our nurses, as well as to help them prevent these types of errors by developing better, more standardized, simple to use medical equipments, electronic order entry and charting, wireless and bar-coding systems, and other numerous ways. Again, she emphasized on the importance of having nurse leaders to provide constant, up-to-date education to help nurses and prevent future medical errors. The second speaker was Pilar De La Cruz-Reyes and she pretty much continued where the last speaker left off by saying that just like any other place, nurses’ scope of practice will be regulated by the hospital and the board of registered nurses. The board defines registered nurses’ role as giving dependent and independent care such as providing safety, comfort, personal hygiene and protection to help patients go through their daily activity. By doing this, we would be able to know any normal and abnormal findings and use our logic to question anything that appears to be abnormal. After attending this conference and having the chance to hear what the speakers had to say, I learned that being a nurse leader is a very important task in terms of providing the best care to patients, as well as the best education to the staff. I also learned that being a nurse automatically makes me a leader and this realization makes me feel obligated and responsible to everything that I do as a nurse. Lastly, I learned that being a patient advocate should always be my priority.

Tragedy of the Commons and Collective Action

Tragedy of the Commons and Collective Action Do the concepts of the ‘tragedy of the commons’ and the problem of ‘collective action’ help you to understand what politics is essentially about? Your answer should include a statement of your understanding of the two concepts and examples to support your argument. I do believe that the concepts of the ‘tragedy of the commons’ and the problem of ‘collective action’ help me to understand what politics is fundamentally about. In this essay I will explain why I believe this to be true. Before I can express how these concepts help with the essential understanding of politics, I must first unravel what exactly the idea of politics is, and I will then continue by applying them to the underlying idea of politics. To help me to do this I will use relevant examples of both in order to back up my opinion and to clearly express my views. It is not simple to define ‘politics’ in just one way as many people have said it to mean very different things. Even respected authorities cannot always agree as to what the subject is about (Heywood, 2013: 2). Harold D. Lasswell famously summed up the idea of politics as being ‘who gets what, when, and how’ (Lasswell, 1936), meaning that it is all about resources. It is about dividing these resources; what these resources are, how much of these resources there is to go around, what system will be used to decide how these resources will be divided up, and how to make sure that after the resources are finished being divided throughout society, that whatever deals were put in place will hold. Politics exists in organisations, groups, and families (Dye, 2002). The broadest definition of politics would be to describe it as the activity through which people make, preserve, and amend the general rules under which the live in society (Heywood, 2013: 2), and this l eads to how politics is undoubtedly linked to conflict and cooperation, which in turn brings us to the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ concept and the ‘Collective Action’ problem. A ‘commons’ is any resource that can be used as though it belongs to all. Garrett Hardin explained the concept of how tragedy can occur within a commons with a parable (Hardin, 1968). The parable was about farmers using a pasture which was open to all, for their herds to graze. As rational beings, each farmer will seek to maximise their own utility, and by pursuing their own self-satisfaction, we expect that each farmer will try to keep as many animals as possible on the pasture (Hardin, 1968). Eventually overgrazing and overcapacity destroys the system of the commons and leads to the collapse of the resource. This is the tragedy. In a limited world, freedom in a commons brings ruin to all, and it can take just one selfish person to break the equilibrium (Hardin, 1968). Of course the concept spreads much farther than just famers grazing their animals on a pasture. Quite a substantial proportion of the world’s most difficult problems can be seen through the lens of the Tragedy of the Commons; famine in Africa, drought, etc. The Tragedy of the Commons can honestly be seen almost anywhere we look in politics. The government can limit access to commons, but there is no technical solution because once this is done it is no longer commons (Hanson, 1997). If we look at America’s political system of ‘laissez faire’, everything, even people become commons. Money is political power and all political decision are reduced to economic ones, meaning that there is no political system but only an economic one (Hanson, 1997). America is one large commons that will be exploited until destruction (Hanson, 1997). The only seen solution is to invent and introduce a political system that cannot be bought monetarily, and then limit freedom in the commons. Otherwise the population will crash (Hanson, 1997). The theoretical approach to politics known as the ‘rational-choice theory’ is a big notion behind the Tragedy of the Commons, and the Tragedy of the Commons definitely aids the understanding of this political theory. The theory assumes that the majority of ‘rational’ people act on the basis of self-interest and will calculate the likely costs and benefits of any action before deciding what to do and will only proceed if the benefits outweigh the costs (Scott, 2000). This theory is clearly employed and understood through the Tragedy of the Commons. In the parable of the farmers, the private benefits received from increasing their heard are greater than the private costs charged, and therefore the farmers adds more animals to the common grazing field. The commons is a fundamental social institution (Crowe, 1969). Hardin’s parable is a useful illustration of a genuine public-policy problem; how does one manage a resource that doesn’t belong to any one? (Tierney, 2009). Due to man’s pursuance of self-interest, social co-operation doesn’t occur naturally, and problems are bound to arise when trying to make people co-operate in society. Government and social order is all about people coming together to achieve goals, and selfishness will effect many policy outcomes. The way we formulate ideas has a real impact on the society which we live in. People derive private benefits from common resources and the costs can be spread to people around them. We can take pollution as a relevant example. If I am lazy and decide to just throw my rubbish onto the street, I receive the benefit of the ease of discarding my waste without effort, while those around me receive the cost of a polluted town. Exhaust from cars pollutes the air and while the driver in benefited by quick and easy travel to their required destination, everyone around them suffers with polluted air and increase global warming. Politics is centrally concerned with the maintenance and management of scarce resources. This is where collective action appears. Collective action is when a number of people come together to achieve a common objective, when it isn’t necessarily in anybody’s interest to do the right thing. It is about getting people who are busy rushing to do their own things, to do something collectively that will benefit all. We talk of the problem of scarce resources as a collective action problem, because essentially what is behind the idea is how to get people to come together- to cooperate. The ‘collective action problem’ describes the situation where the ‘free-rider’ problem occurs, when rational actors have no individual incentive to support the collective action (Scott, 2000), and despite their unwillingness to cooperate themselves, the still gain from the cooperation of others. Most action taken on behalf of groups of individuals is taken through orga nizations (Olson, 1965:9), and therefore my example will based on organizations in a general form. Rational individuals will join organizations where the benefits of membership and involvement outweigh the costs, but if they can still receive the benefits without joining the organization, they will not feel the need to join it. The rational choice theory is re-introduced here. If every individual views the membership of the organisation in the same way, nobody will be willing to join and there will be nobody left willing to provide the service of the organization. There is also the example of voters. Individual voters have very little influence over the result of elections and they therefore don’t pay much attention to politics or policy decisions. They do not analyse it in depth, and vote irrationally. We therefore end up with worse outcomes than we would have if they had chosen to stick with their lack of knowledge and not vote. Cooperation is at the heart of the notion of collective action. Groups of individuals with common interests are expected to act on behalf of their common interests as much as single individuals are expected to act on behalf of their personal interests (Olson, 1965: 5). Unfortunately, people do not cooperate naturally. When left with individuals who are motivated by self-interest and don’t work for the group, we must think: what kind of society can emerge and how do you force people into action that will make them work for the group. Tax is a social condition. It is not left up to the people to decide what amount they think they should pay, as although tax paid goes towards services that benefit society as a whole, individuals would avoid paying if they had the choice, if they felt they could still receive the same benefits. Making tax a social condition is an example of a solved political collective action problem in a way. In conclusion I feel that I have convincingly explained why I believe that the concept of the ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ and the ‘Collective Action’ problem both aid in the understanding of what politics is essentially about. What fundamentally links these ideas with politics is cooperation, as it is the foundation for them all. The political ‘Rational Choice’ theory can be comprehended when used with examples from both the tragedy of the commons, and the collective action problem. Politics is about managing resources and searching for conflict resolution that may arise, and both ideas can definitely be described as conflicts that may be faced during this process. Bibliography CROWE, L. B. (1969) Science, New Series. The Tragedy of the Commons Revisited. [Internet], November 1969, 166(3909), pp. 1103-1107. Available from: http://www.sciencemag.org/site/feature/misc/webfeat/sotp/pdfs/166-3909-1103.pdf [Accessed 11th January 2014]. DYE, R. T. (2002) Politics in America, Basic Edition. New Jersey, Prentice Hall (5th Edition). Available from: http://wps.prenhall.com/hss_dye_politics_5/6/1739/445252.cw/index.html [Accessed 7th January 2014]. HANSON, J. (1997) Tragedy of the Commons Re-Stated. Available from: http://dieoff.org/page109.htm [Accessed 12th January 2014]. HARDIN, G. (1968) Science. The Tragedy of the Commons. [Internet], December 1968, 162, pp. 1243-1248. Available from: http://www.sciencemag.org/content/162/3859/1243.full [Accessed 7th January 2014]. HEYWOOD, A. (2013) Politics. Hampshire, Palgrave Macmillan (4th Edition). LASSWELL, D. H. (1936) Politics: Who Gets What, When, How. New York, London, Whittlesey House, McGraw-Hill Book Company Incorporated. OLSON, M. (1965) The Logic of Collective Action. Public Goods and the Theory of Groups. Massachsetts, Harvard University Press. SCOTT, J. (2000) ‘Rational Choice Theory’, in G Browning, A Halcli, F Webster (eds), Understanding Contemporary Society: Theories of the Present. London, SAGE Publications Ltd, pp. 126-139. Available from: http://www.soc.iastate.edu/Sapp/soc401rationalchoice.pdf [Accessed 10th January 2014]. TIERNEY, J. (2009,) The Non-Tragedy of the Commons. The New York Times. Available from: http://tierneylab.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/10/15/the-non-tragedy-of-the-commons/?_r=0 [Accessed 12th January 2014].

Women and their Roles in Pre-Industrial Europe Essay -- essays researc

The Women, Family, and Household of Pre-Industrial Europe   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Many of people today feel trapped inside their homes, just how the women of Pre-Industrial Europe felt. Working day in and day out inside the homes, just to keep the family together, and make a little money on the side, these women were an integral part of Pre-Industrial families. Not only were the women important to Pre-Industrial European families, but so were the households. Much of the money was made in the households, and this is where families either succeeded or failed. The household and women of Pre-Industrial Europe played an integral role in the economy of the families, and more importantly, the women of these households kept them running smoothly. Without either of these important aspects of life in Pre-Industrial Europe, it is safe to say that the families would have collapsed, due to a lack of organization and structures. Pre-Industrial Europe, in which the women and the household were â€Å"the factories† per se, due to the income they generat ed, was much different from the Europe we know today. Leading into the Industrialization of Europe beginning in the late 1700's and lasting through the early 1800's, the household played an integral role in the family’s income. Without the household, the families would literally collapse, due to a lack of organization and stability. Within these important family sub-units, there was one married couple, their children, the family’s servants, and in some cases, depending upon the region of Europe, there were grandparents, aunts and uncles. Not only did the father and servants of the house work, but also the women and children. Also, in the case of there being more than one generation of family in a single household, depending upon the region of Europe, the grandparents, aunts, and uncles would also work within the house. Once the children of these households reached a certain age, usually the early teens, they were sent off to work in a house as a servant. These servants were different then the servants of today, as they worked for room, board, and food, not waiting on the family. Once they started to generate income, the teens would save up the money necessary to begin their own family. However, there were the few exceptions; teens that did not work as servants, and ended up marrying into an existing household. This however,... ...n everyday life. For example, because of the early marriages in Eastern European families, the new couples went back to their old home and lived there. However, in Northwestern European families, the newly married couples started their own households and families, because they had more time to gain the money necessary to start their own households. For these reasons, the families of Pre-Industrial Europe were very successful, and were able to produce enough money to keep the family thriving. Sources Cited   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Donald Kagan, Steven Ozment, Frank M. Turner. The Western Heritage. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001. Patricia Ahmed, Rebecca Jean Emigh. Household Structure During the Market Transition in   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Eastern Europe. N/A.N/A.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/soc/groups/ccsa/ahmedemigh.pdf Michael Mitterauer. Historical Family Forms in eastern Europe in European Comparison.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  N/A. N/A. http://dmo.econ.msu.ru/Data/mitterauer.html Richard Hooker. Women During the European Enlightenment. N/A. N/A.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/ENLIGHT/WOMEN.HTM

Situational Leadership

Leadership is as much a function of the situation in which the participants find themselves as it is of the characteristic of a leader. (Discuss) The characteristics of a leader are most important; however, one needs to take into consideration that different situations call for different types of leadership. Previous research by Luccier & Achua (2010) states that different situations need different types of leadership. Therefore, leadership, organisational culture, situational leadership, personality and other traits need to be defined. Furthermore, an exploration of the impact of situations in relation to the characteristics of a leader and/or their leadership style shall be discussed, as will argue how this impacts upon the organisation and its leadership. A discussion of what abilities should be displayed by a leader in different situations, especially in education will ensue. Evidence suggests (Palmer 2011) that leadership changes its meaning, revealing different thoughts as well as different viewpoints. It â€Å"is the influencing process of leaders and followers to achieve organisational objectives through change† (Luccier & Achua 2010, p6. Daft (2005) highlights that there is a connection between leaders and followers, and the goals they wish to attain. In other words, leadership affects power or control, and it takes place amongst people, and those people wanting critical change (Richard & Andrew, (2009). Above all, leadership is about motivating â€Å"confidence and support† who are required t o realise the objectives of the organisation (Palmer 2011; Dubrin, 2004, p. 3) A number of writers have defined traits as â€Å"distinguishing personal characteristics† of a leader for example honesty, appearance, intelligence and self-confidence. Luccier & Achua 2010 p 33; Palmer 2011; Samson &Draft 2003) Personality is the mixture (combination) of traits in regards to specific behaviour. In other words, personality is character, and it affects our decisions. (Palmer 2011; Luccier & Achua, 2004, p. 29) Organisation culture relates to a collection of, standards, and understandings shared by members of an organisation, including new members. (Richard & Andrew 2009) In addition, it is viewed as a â€Å"shared mental model† or â€Å"social glue† that brings an organisation together. (Luccier &Achua 2010; p. 70) The staff at a school, led by a Principal should possess such a model. Situational leadership is a theory identified by Harsey & Blanchard (1969) that purports that â€Å"effective leaders are those that reflect greater change in their leadership style in respect to task orientation and directive orientation in support of individual follower’s abilities and requirements†. Fuchs (2007; p. 15) It is also based on the thought that leadership moves between business followers according to the needs of an individual group at a specific time. Sousa 2003) Ministers of Education, Principals and Education Department heads should all embrace this theory, so that they can instigate positive development and/or change in their respective organisations. Leadership style is the mixture or combination of personalities, abilities and behaviours leaders use as they relate with followers. (Luccier & Achua 2010) Observations of followers can suggest the favoured approach or forms of behaviour used by different leaders. (Fuchs (2007) Thus, a school leader would need to know their staff reasonably well to be able to do so. Organisational success is not only influenced by leadership, but, also by the organisation’s vision, cultural mission and support from the public. However, many specialists argue that strong leadership is very important to organisational needs (Richard & Andrew 2009). Above all, effective leaders are ethos or beliefs makers (Luccier & Achua 2010). According to Palmer (2011) leadership is the skill to encourage, impact and inspire staff to achieve excellent work, and states that motivation is measured as a dominant instrument for employers’ improvement. It also helps leaders to realise the types of people in their organisation and inspire them to get involved in developing and improving the organisation. A practical example of this is illustrated in the USA study which indicated that about 77 percent of workers or employees were not satisfied at work, mainly because they felt they were not motivated by their leader (Luccier & Achua, 2010. ). New employees need to be motivated by their leader, which in turn leads to greater job satisfaction and a greater likelihood of organisational involvement. A Principal should make professional development school wide and appropriate to the school, it students and educational context. Effective leaders are responsible for direction and support of every worker, and also assist with conflict resolution. They also have to be outstanding speakers to be able to communicate well so that they can pass on information to staff and also to people outside the organisation (Palmer 2011; Richard & Andrew 2009). In a school, the Principal/Deputy Principal would need to deal with such conflicts, making sure that they are imparcial and fair, free from bias. Leaders serve as role models for employees and are key motivators. Staff members can model honesty, integrity, commitment and other values demonstrated by their leader. (Luccier & Achua, 2010; Palmer 2011) In addition, they are strategic developers which form the organisation’s vision in collaboration with staff and other stake holders. Above all, they are policy producers and decision makers for both staff and organisations (Cited in Palmer 2011 Dubrin, 2004). Decisions can either be right or wrong, and can lead to the success or failure of an organisation, unless guided by a learned, insightful leader. An effective leader should demonstrate values like accountability, transparency, professionalism, commitment, innovation and motivation. Above all, an effective leader should be versatile to be able to cope with global change and new trends in management and leadership. Principals and others in educational leadership roles need to have up-to-date knowledge and be able to utilise it appropriately. Previous research (Luccier & Achua 2010; Palmer 2011) states that leadership efficiency is learnable. Not all leaders represent leadership hat has been learned. Different leadership styles are used under certain conditions according to Dubrin & Dalglish (2001) they draw attention to Malcolm Fraser's experience. He changed his leadership style due to influences on his situation. For instance, Fraser as Prime Minister of Australia, he was exercising authority, whilst also acting as chairman of CARE Australia, his profile was low. For this reason, one can highlight that the situation has an imp act on which leadership style is most effective. The impact can be influenced by both internal and external situations. Also, it may be negative or positive depending on how favourable or unfavourable the employee’s or leader’s perceptions are (Richard & Andrew 2009). Fiedler’s (1967 as cited in Richard & Andrew 2009) point out that leaders’ have essential features. In the same way he establishes the contingency theory as a session of behavioural concepts based on the principle that there is no one preferred way of leading, and that a similar leadership style does not work in all circumstances. This theory is classifying a manager’s leadership style as task motivated and relationship motivated. Fiedler (1967) used the least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale to measure the degree of leadership style. Fiedler’s theory highlights that situations can be placed into three categories, namely high, low and moderate. Fiedler also used the leader match concept to match leaders to situations. For instance, Fiedler points out that task motivated leaders do better in situations that are high, enabling them to concentrate on building and maintaining relationships. In contrast, for moderate situations the relationship motivated is better, so is not as much of a focal point, as in low situations. Task motivated leaders may do well, but they may create a sense of misunderstanding, while relationship motivated leaders will seek consultations and support staff emotionally. The contingency theory is the most researched and advantageous, however, it had been established that it is very difficult to make sure that it has a good influence on most leaders. Furthermore, the total amount of control a eader exerts differs depending on the time and situation. It has been argued that from the situational characteristics, there is a negative connection between LPC score and group performance. Also, it is hard to make a summary about a leader's performance, when leaders are always adapting their leadership style according to changing situations they find themselves in. More research needs to be carried out on the contingency leadership so that it can be flexib le and meet the desired outcomes of modern globalization tests and organisational requirements. The Situational Leadership model (SLM) was developed by Hersey and Blanchard (1996) as cited in Richard & Andrew (2009). It focuses on followers as being the significant component of the situation, and therefore, defines an actual leader's behaviour. Hersey & Blanchard (1996) highlighted the importance of appropriate leadership training, and stress the importance of leaders being adaptive in exact situations. In the case of school Principals, many have not received adequate training to be able to do a productive and credible job. However, experience, maturity and impartiality may be evident and are the reasons for a person being chosen for such a position. Hersey and Blanchard (1996) support the earlier theoretical assumptions from the Ohio State study which reveal that behaviour of a leader can be a combination of two points of view, such as having aspects of being democratic and autocratic. (Luccier & Achua 2010) The SLM is based on four groups which are a mixture of the two dimensions â€Å"delegating, participating, selling and telling† (Dubrin & Dalglish 2001, p157. This model focuses on the readiness of group members and states that â€Å"there is no one best way to influence group members and the most effective leadership style depends on the level of the group members† (Dubrin & Dalglish 2001 p. 156) In addition, employees differ in readiness levels. For instance, there are those that lack enthusiasm for a task due to a lack of appropriate training. These employees lack confidence in the ir abilities. To improve on this, a change of leadership style may be required. Such employees are in contrast to those with high levels of task readiness. These employees, thanks to better training, are secure and confident employees who are able to make decisions and contributions to their organisations. Luccier & Achua, (2010) argued that leaders should develop skills and task should be clearly stated as evident in MacDonald’s Corporation. The leaders in this organisation provide employees with ongoing training, thus constantly upgrading and improving their skills, so that they can be confident when performing tasks. If a teacher/staff member is not well trained in some aspect of their job, i. e. omputer based programs; Principals ought to provide access to such training, without critical outcomes. The leader has the ability to guide the business to greater success and employee participation by developing better relationships within their organisation (Dubrin & Dalglish. 2001) Such a model would be a good one to be adopted by organisations, especially in Swaziland, where employees are low in their task readiness, due to numero us constraints. This is a situation beyond control and cannot be changed overnight, but, it is a possibility in the future. Therefore, the leadership style can be changed to suit or meet different groups. For example, in a classroom situation, a student with impairment cannot change that situation, but a teacher can change teaching methods by differentiating their teaching in order to meet the individual's needs. This model has been demonstrated as being valuable as a foundation for leadership training. (Dubrin & Dalglish 2001) It has been established that before one decides on a leadership style, one has to assess the readiness level of the group members. It also provides leaders with precise guidelines, and not complicated rhetoric unlike the contingency theory. However, Vecchio's (1987) research on 300 teachers and their principals, showed mixed results, advising that this model is only good for staff that are confident. More research should be carried out in different cultures and differing contexts so as to provide appropriate examples for differing settings, so as to get results that will be relevant to contemporary issues and global challenges. (Dubrin & Dalglish 2001) In conclusion, the contingency and path goal theory focus on â€Å"task, authority and nature of the subordinates†; while the cognitive resource theory illustrates that stress is vital to â€Å"how leader’s intelligence is related to group performances† (Fieldler & Garcia1987; Vecchio 1990; Chemers1997 cited in Dubrin & Dalglish p. 163) Principals have a stressful role, therefore, many draw on such resources to be effective leaders. The SLM focuses on the everyday tasks and the effective applications of behaviours the leader employs. Dubrin & Dalglish 2001). The SLM is a more appropriate model, and has demonstrated its impact by addressing culturally diverse organisations, leadership effectiveness in the global context and by its correlating leadership styles and follower relationships. (Luccier & Achua, 2010). The writer believes that SLM is still the appropriate and relevant style for a leader, as it can bring change to a leader’s behaviour as it is conn ected with relationships, which is more important to subordinates for mutual understanding. On another note, culture is very important when leading people, all the situational models originated and were tested in the United States, which may not be appropriate or have the same impact compared to other cultures in Africa, Asia and Europe. Henson and Werner felt (1989) suggest that the culture of an organisation influences how subconscious and conscious decisions are made in it. (Lok & Crawford 2003) Finally, more research needs to be carried out, that will establish an effective leadership style chosen to be appropriate for diverse cultural organisations.

Louis Leakey Essays - Louis Leakey, Mary Leakey, Leakey, Stone Age

Louis Leakey Essays - Louis Leakey, Mary Leakey, Leakey, Stone Age Louis Leakey Louis Leakey Discovering the Secrets of Humankind's Past Louis Leakey was born to be an archaeologist, for his childhood in Africa truly prepared him for the field life he would later lead. The son of missionaries Harry and Mary Leakey, Louis grew up in Kenya near Nairobi, among the Kikuyu African tribe who the elder Leakeys were trying to convert. Despite intervening periods in which the Leakeys moved back to England, Louis grew up practically as a Kikuyu tribe member, and at the age of eleven he not only built his own traditional hut in which to live but was also initiated as a member of the Kikuyu tribe. It was within this hut that the beginnings of Leakeys archaelogical aspirations took place. In one section he started a personal museum, collected all things naturalistic, from bird eggs to animal skulls. It was in 1916, at the age of fourteen, when Leakey first truly realized that he was meant for archaeology; after reading the account of stone-age men entitled Days Before History he was hooked. After reading about the arrowheads and a xeheads created by these people, Louis began collecting and classifying as many pieces of obsidian flakes and tools as he could find. After confirmation by a prehistory expert that these were truly stone tools of ancient Africans, truly links to the past, Leakey knew that the rest of his life would be devoted towards discovering the secrets of the prehistoric ancestors of humankind. Despite not being accustomed to the school structure back in England and the accompanying problems he had in public school, Leakey was accepted into Cambridge in 1922. However, blows to the head sustained during rugby games resulted in epilepsy and headaches for Leakey, and he had to leave school in 1923. This, however, was a blessing in disguise, for Leakey landed a job as an African expert on an archaeological mission to Tendaguru in what is now Tanzania. He was to accompany the archaeologist and dinosaur bone expert William E. Cutler. With his fluency in Swahili, Leakey soon orgainized an entire safari to the site. Working with and observing Cutler, Leakey learned more about the technical side of the search for and preservation of fossil bones than [he] could have gleaned from a far longer period of theoretical study. Many dinosaur bones were dug up although a complete skeleton was never found. After several months Leakey was forced to leave, leaving Cutler to continue. Back in En gland, Leakey wrote many articles and letters about the dig. Cutler, however, died in Africa a few months later, a victim of Blackwater fever. Leakey returned to Cambridge and studied anthropology. From these studies and independent ones, Leakey developed the view that early man had originated in Africa, not in Asia as most scholars believed at the time. He became fascinated with the Olduvai Gorge site and the Homo sapiens skeleton discovered by German paleontologist Hans Reck. Great controversy surrounded Recks find because the age of the skeleton could not be proven. Further, Reck could not return to the site because, as he was German and Britain had won that region of Africa in World War I, he was not able to go there. Leakey was fascinated with the site and told Reck that they would one day go back. For the time being, this had to be put on hold. Finishing finals, Leakey graduated with excellent marks and recieved many grants for research in Africa. He was twenty-three, and he was about to lead his own expeditions. Over the next few years Leakey dug at many sites, finding many stone tools, animal bones, and other artifacts. His search, however, was for proof of the use of a specific Chellean hand-axe style found in other parts of the world. This he found in 1929, and its discovery pushed back the age of the Great Rift Valley in Africa a great deal. Further, it provided critical evidence for a level of sophistication in East Africa equal to that of European cultures at the time. By this time Leakeys work at caught the attention of the archaeological community and he began to receive much acclaim. In November 1929 he returned to England with a

HOW THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIST ALTERED THE ENVIORNMENT essays

HOW THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIST ALTERED THE ENVIORNMENT essays How the New England Colonists` Altered the New England Environment In Changes in the Land, William Cronon points out the European colonists` pursuits of a capitalistic market and the impact it had on the New England ecosystem. Native Americans and colonists had different views on the use of land resources. The Natives viewed the land as something not owned, but as a resource to sustain life. They believe in a hunting-gathering system, hunting only when necessary. In the long run Native Americans lost their old traditions and were forced to adapt to the colonists` traditions in order to survive. This change contributed even more to the alteration of the ecosystem during the colonization period. In contrast, colonists viewed the land as capitalistic market in which they used more of the land resources without taking into consideration that one day they would run out of resources. Before the colonists arrived in New England land resources were in abundance. The only ones to use these resources were the Natives, but the type of resources they used where divided in regions. Northern Indians lived entirely as hunter-gatherers, while the Indians south of the Kennebec River raised crops. (p.38) Even though the Indians used a large amount of the land resources it had very little affect on the land because of techniques in which they regained some of the land resources each season. The Southern Indians changed their farming spot each season; this actually allowed the land to recuperate and become fertile once more. Rather than raising crops all year the Indians only planted in March and June. They also used their fields to plant more than one crop; such crops included corn, beans, squash, pumpkin, and tobacco. Grain made up half of their diet; this gave the natives an advantage because grain could be easily stored for the winter. They also planted crops that fertilized the land with resources that were lost with the p...

The Original Boss--William Tweed

The Original BossWilliam Tweed The Original BossDuring the "Golden Years" of America, in the middle of the 19th century, it seemed as though nothing happened in New York City unless the Boss wanted it to happen. William Marcy "Boss" Tweed, a formidable politician, ruled and corrupted the city so shamelessly in the years right after the War Between the States, that his name became synonymous with dishonesty. Construction of the Brooklyn Bridge could not proceed until Tweed got a seat on the bridge company board. It was reported that he redirected more than $6 million of the city's money into his own bank account. Known among political reformers as the forty thieves, The Tweed Ring [Peter Sweeny, city chamberlain; Richard B. Connolly, city comptroller; and Oakey Hall, mayor (to name a few)], "sold" money-making franchises to companies they controlled, padded construction bills, practiced graft and extortion, and exploited every opportunity to plunder the city's funds, the Boss was a figure to be reckoned with.Englis h: Caricature of Boss Tweed by Thomas Nast.Both beloved by many of the city's poor immigrants yet the target of pointed jabs from political cartoonist Thomas Nast, these were two opposite faces of the Boss.There is little question that the Tweed Ring practiced thievery and that Tammany Hall had a series of reoccurring scandals. An estimated 75 to 200 million dollars were swindled from the City between 1865 and 1871. Yet, there is more to the story than a confrontation of the machine form of city government and the ideology of reformer exhortations. Tammany represented a form of organization that wedded the Democratic Party and the Society of St. Tammany (started in 1789 for patriotic and fraternal purposes) into an interchangeable exchange. The weave of city politics was the triangulation of the Mayor's office, the Democratic Party and the social club organization. During the...

PERSUASIVE MESSAGE Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

PERSUASIVE MESSAGE - Assignment Example t in place to ascertain that we are the best in the industry, we came to an agreement that we will need the best instructor in the industry to walk with us through this journey and after consultations it was decided that you are the best in the industry and came to a conclusion to request fro your prowess to enable us achieve our goals. With your skills and prowess in ballet we believe that we have a great opportunity to grow together both financially and professionally. With the goal of being the best, we had a meeting and came to a consensus that we can introduce special classes in our studio for new members who we will charge a premium to join. We target at creating something new in the industry and with your help we believe that this is a great business opportunity for you and our company. We want to make our business stand out and because our company is renown, we will get new students fast and easy and because you are popular we believe that you are the right person for this job. We intend to start a three-days-a-week beginning ballet class with you as the instructor to achieve this endeavor. We understand your busy schedule and have factored all these in our program and we will highly appreciate your approval. It is our understanding that you have free evenings and were kindly requesting you to spare this time to work with us as we move forward towards becoming the best as a team. We believe that you teaching in our studio will promote ballet, which we know is your heartfelt desire. We have dedicated students and have the conviction that not only will you enjoy teaching in our studio but it will also be an exciting experience as you will also interact with our team. With our renown studio, this will also be an opportunity for you to add credits too your resume as we are an established and recognized company. In terms of compensation we have a hefty package, which we intend to discuss with you further so that we can come to an agreement that will be

Critical Approaches to Human Resource Management Essay - 2

Critical Approaches to Human Resource Management - Essay Example Only then, the dominance and position of the organization, operating in any segment, might retain in the market for a longer period of time among other contenders. However, in order to do so, it is quite essential to communicate within them in order to know their inner desires and likings. After knowing the inner desires and feelings, the management of the organization might act accordingly in order to accomplish it. As a result, the performance of the employees might get enhanced and it may improve the productivity and total sale of the organization.   Other than this, in order to retain the experienced staffs for the longer period of time, implementation of effective training methods is also highly effective in nature. By doing so, the inner skills and talents of the employees might get enhanced that may augment his or her career objectives as well. Moreover, due to the execution of various types of training programs, the level of efficiency of the employees’ improves in such a extent that may amplify its portfolio in the market among many other rival contenders. Due to execution of varied types of training programs, the level of satisfaction and inner morale of the employees improves that declines the scope the turnover rate. This essay mainly describes the topic, whether the amounts of revenue spend over training is effective or in-effective (Beardwell & Claydon, 2010, pp. 223-245). After analyzing this concept with the help of various approaches of HRM, a final opinion is attained as conclusion. The term training is described as the systematic improvement of the knowledge, skills, attitude and behavior of an individual so as to fulfill the assigned duties and responsibilities in an effective way. Only then, the level of performance and productivity of the employee might get enhanced and may amplify the profit margin of the organization. Due to

How does Social learning theory positively impact the training program Literature review - 1

How does Social learning theory positively impact the training program - Literature review Example The social learning theory, as postulated by Albert Bandura, has been applied widely in organizations as the most appropriate way of allowing employees to acquire the desired skills, knowledge and abilities. This paper presents a review of past research on the application of the social learning theory in a training project for employees within organizations. The paper aims at demonstrating the models, theories and factors which are involved in the social learning theory approach within a training project. Social Learning Theory In accordance with the works of Bandura on the social learning theory, it is postulated that employees or individuals within organizations learn appropriately and effectively within the context of a social environment (Harris & Kleiner, 1993). The learning or training that applies the social learning theory and approach is achieved through learning concepts and models such as observation and modeling (Knights & Willmott, 2007). As a result, various models have been put forth and applied in training projects. This is because the application of models in training programs and projects has been described as the most effective way of achieving change in behavior within organizations or companies (Boyce, 2011). However, past research has demonstrated heated debate on the effectiveness of social learning theory in meeting the training needs of an organization. The critics of the theory base their arguments that the models used within the social learning theory are not as effective and efficient as they are presented by the theory’s proponents (Clarke & Caffarella, 1999). On the other hand, reports of scientific investigation reflect a recommendation for organizations to employ the social learning theory as a learning tool within its training projects (Kalliath, Brough, O'Driscoll, Manimala, & Siu, 2010). Such research is backed by evidence and illustrations on the effectiveness of the theory in achieving the goals and objectives of trai ning projects within small, medium size and large organizations. In the light of these observations, the literature review within this paper will analyze, evaluate and discuss past research on this theory in relation to its application in promoting the effectiveness of learning projects within organizations. Workplace Training and Employee Development The focus of many researchers has been within various aspects of the contemporary knowledge community or society. As a result, past researchers commonly refer to the modern knowledge society as post-capitalism, post-Fordism or post-industrialism (Boyce, 2011). Nonetheless, many researchers who investigate the role of social learning theory in organizational training refer to the contemporary knowledge society as late-capitalism and post-modernity (Bartol, Tein, Matthews, & Martin, 2005). The models within the observational learning approach, as postulated by Bandura in his social learning theory, have specifically attracted the attenti on of researchers. According to Bandura’s social learning theory, a live model is an observational approach which is a description of an individual who is depicting the desired characteristics and behavior. Researchers

Employee Perception On Commitment Oriented Work Systems Article

Employee Perception On Commitment Oriented Work Systems - Article Example The research attempted to identify the relationship between employee trust or loyalty to managers and employee’s in-role and extra-role performance in comparison with that of organizational commitment in the organizations. Due to the increased popularity of the idea of employee commitment, researchers in this study turned their attention to multiple commitments in that in addition to the organizations as a focus of commitment, other important factors such as management, performance, and occupation were incorporated in the study. There are several theories included in this study. For instance, McGregor’s’ theoretical differentiation between theory X and theory Y has been applied. Theory X shows employees dislike work, lack motivation; avoid work and external motivation such as punishment is used as a way of motivation. This, in turn, results in poor performance. Theory Y, on the other hand, states that poor performance cannot be attributed to human nature but to a n imperfect work system. Therefore, managers should realize that employees want self-control, self-direction, seeks and accepts responsibility. In turn, Theory X calls for use of a commitment oriented work system. The theory advocates for a universal employee preference for autonomy, self-control, and responsibility. Thus, an effective commitment HR system should fit these assumptions better than the control HR system. The experimental design in this study relied on variables such type of work and type of contract. These variables were efficient in that they presented the relationship that exists in the workplace when an employee knows the kind of work he or she does. The problem with this design is that it relied more on primary data. In this case, the results cannot be effective since it involves individual response. In addition, validity was jeopardized by experimental procedures, pretesting and differential selection among employees of the organization.

Choose two (2) activities from the list of seven (7) reflective, Assignment

Choose two (2) activities from the list of seven (7) reflective, analytical and experiential activities presented below. Each ac - Assignment Example I am a resident of United States and have gone to China for my job in a multinational company. There I have experienced a different culture altogether, which does not match with the culture of China. At first I was very much excited to embrace a new culture but slowly I understood that it is very stressful to get adapted and embrace a totally new culture. The first problem that was faced by me was the communication problem. But what really made me survive in the new country and saved me from my work and personal life complications, is the Zen meditation. I first came to know about the practice when one day a meditation class was arranged for the team members of the company. The meditation concept was decided by our employer, who understood our stressful condition and gave us the opportunity to improve our mind state and concentrate on our work. I was very much excited about the concept as I have never experienced such classes. The meditation class was held after the working hours. Af ter attending the class I liked the whole concept of the activity and was very much interested to know more about the activity (Thorby, 2011). Analysis Zen meditation is developed within the Japanese Zen Buddhism. The Zen practice is very effective to human body as it provides deep relaxation both physically as well as mentally. The meditation connects us with the subconscious part of our mind and assists us to link with our consciousness with the inner world of our mind. Thus, the practice helps us to connect with the inner garden of our mind in time and reduce stress to give us easiness. It takes us to that level where we can reduce our daily tension in our work and non-work life. When we are contended with our action, behavior and have reduced stress that we are going through, we improve our connection with the outside world. This increases the joy and vitality of our life and makes us more creative. This will increase the vitality and joy of our life and makes us concentrate on the creativity. The regular practice enhances and strengthens the self concentration, brings improvement in the balance of our body and helps to increase our mental strength. It assists in integrating those parts of our body, which has blocked vitality and perception that provides us with safer platform in life. The meditation practice mainly focuses on the central part of our body and mind. The practice is very easy and can be exercised easily be practiced without having any religious inclinations. The concept was first developed in Soto School and in this school Zen means sitting. The practice is also called ZaZen which gives us the meaning true sitting (Stevenson, 2012). It is totally a new culture to me and following the Soto tradition and meditating in the same way as they do is quite impossible if not practiced well. We all know that as an instrument of feeling and perception, our body is the main focus of our mind. If our body is relaxed we are bound to stay happy. Any type o f stress or tension disturbs our relaxed minds and thus it also harms our thought process and thus we become irritated very fast. Thus, it is very important to make our body relaxed, so that it does not affect our mind and thought process. Another critical activity of our body is breathing and apart from body it is

Follow instruction Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Follow instruction - Assignment Example My inspiration was the ability to control everything in my life as everything went according to my life. Simply put, I had everything going as I wished. To some extent, I even controlled my then boyfriend who we dated for approximately 6 years; throughout my campus life and after campus. Life was to change after campus when I realized that life is not about forcing things to happen but compromising on some things to gain others. My first blow was when my long time boyfriend left me after so many years of dating. He complained of the fact that I always controlled his life and I never gave him time to live his life. With time I decided to leave my home and live independently. Even after lot of advice that I was not prepared to live independently, I thought I was always right, so I moved out. It became very difficult to survive on my own especially without a job. In my mind I knew I was right. Since I was a graduate, I thought getting a job would be easy. This was the complete opposite as I struggled without a job and rent to pay. I suffered a lot in life and even opted to start drinking to seek solace. Life was getting worse by the day. I got a job later and moved out of town. It is at this juncture that my life started changing. I learnt that life is all about compromise. No person is right, and no person has the right to undermine and despise the other. With this bitter truth in my mind, I have learnt to live with all manners of people regardless of their social status, beliefs or even race. To some extent, I have changed for the better. I have moved on from my past mistakes and adopted a new lifestyle. I got married two years ago, and I have learnt to appreciate my husband whom we have a cute daughter. Conclusively, life changes play a critical role in shaping a new person. I am no longer proud and unappreciative of life’s little blessings as luck never waits for a person. I also learnt that forgiveness is vital in successful life. Forgiveness is not about

Employee Perception On Commitment Oriented Work Systems Article

Employee Perception On Commitment Oriented Work Systems - Article Example The research attempted to identify the relationship between employee trust or loyalty to managers and employee’s in-role and extra-role performance in comparison with that of organizational commitment in the organizations. Due to the increased popularity of the idea of employee commitment, researchers in this study turned their attention to multiple commitments in that in addition to the organizations as a focus of commitment, other important factors such as management, performance, and occupation were incorporated in the study. There are several theories included in this study. For instance, McGregor’s’ theoretical differentiation between theory X and theory Y has been applied. Theory X shows employees dislike work, lack motivation; avoid work and external motivation such as punishment is used as a way of motivation. This, in turn, results in poor performance. Theory Y, on the other hand, states that poor performance cannot be attributed to human nature but to a n imperfect work system. Therefore, managers should realize that employees want self-control, self-direction, seeks and accepts responsibility. In turn, Theory X calls for use of a commitment oriented work system. The theory advocates for a universal employee preference for autonomy, self-control, and responsibility. Thus, an effective commitment HR system should fit these assumptions better than the control HR system. The experimental design in this study relied on variables such type of work and type of contract. These variables were efficient in that they presented the relationship that exists in the workplace when an employee knows the kind of work he or she does. The problem with this design is that it relied more on primary data. In this case, the results cannot be effective since it involves individual response. In addition, validity was jeopardized by experimental procedures, pretesting and differential selection among employees of the organization.

Follow instruction Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Follow instruction - Assignment Example My inspiration was the ability to control everything in my life as everything went according to my life. Simply put, I had everything going as I wished. To some extent, I even controlled my then boyfriend who we dated for approximately 6 years; throughout my campus life and after campus. Life was to change after campus when I realized that life is not about forcing things to happen but compromising on some things to gain others. My first blow was when my long time boyfriend left me after so many years of dating. He complained of the fact that I always controlled his life and I never gave him time to live his life. With time I decided to leave my home and live independently. Even after lot of advice that I was not prepared to live independently, I thought I was always right, so I moved out. It became very difficult to survive on my own especially without a job. In my mind I knew I was right. Since I was a graduate, I thought getting a job would be easy. This was the complete opposite as I struggled without a job and rent to pay. I suffered a lot in life and even opted to start drinking to seek solace. Life was getting worse by the day. I got a job later and moved out of town. It is at this juncture that my life started changing. I learnt that life is all about compromise. No person is right, and no person has the right to undermine and despise the other. With this bitter truth in my mind, I have learnt to live with all manners of people regardless of their social status, beliefs or even race. To some extent, I have changed for the better. I have moved on from my past mistakes and adopted a new lifestyle. I got married two years ago, and I have learnt to appreciate my husband whom we have a cute daughter. Conclusively, life changes play a critical role in shaping a new person. I am no longer proud and unappreciative of life’s little blessings as luck never waits for a person. I also learnt that forgiveness is vital in successful life. Forgiveness is not about

City of God Essay Example for Free

City of God Essay In The Prince, Niccolo Machiavelli cements his reputation as an Italian political theorist who, wicked as he may seem, believed that morality and ethics did not mix well with politics and the mechanisms of power. From this book rose the ever famous line, â€Å"The end justifies the means†, and true enough The Prince had embodied a way of thinking so revolutionary and controversial that for hundreds of years, it had remained the ultimate handbook for political control. This is illustrated very well in Chapter 17, where Machiavelli discusses cruelty and its importance to maintaining power. â€Å"Here the question arises: is it better to be loved than feared, or vice versa? I don’t doubt that every prince would like to be both; but since it is hard to accommodate these qualities, if you have to make a choice, to be feared is much safer than to be loved. † This quote easily became emblazoned in the reader’s minds partly because of its cruel approach, which however brutal it may seem, borders on reality and actual truth. In order to get hold of your subjects more, to keep them united and to keep them from revolting against you, Machiavelli relates that it is imperative to be punitive and exacting; to have them live in dread than to easily lose power by being mild and amiable. Fear then is necessary to be able to rule your subjects and keep them under your control. Machiavelli points out that the loyalty gained from fear is much more difficult to lose and therefore any ruler must strive to be feared. Such is the way of Machiavelli’s thinking and this quote becomes testament to his genius. His ideas, though wicked and malevolent, are worth to be considered by any one who desires to gain and control power for they stand out remarkably honest and brutally clever. Saint Augustine, being governed by his beliefs and principles, wrote in a way that he incorporates his vocation to convey and relate to the people what it is that God intends for society. In The City of God, Augustine’s work primarily takes this approach to express his ideas on the workings of an earthly city and how it is needed to be likened to the â€Å"city of God†. This work was primarily written to assuage the doubts and answer the criticisms of the people about the defeat of Rome, which was thought to be protected by God, and therefore, unlikely to fall. Moreover, Augustine heavily inclines his work towards the good and the belief of an omnipotent God and his offering of eternal happiness. In particular, Augustine stresses the importance of peace as an end goal, â€Å"Peace is such a great good that even with respect to earthly and mortal things, nothing is heard with greater pleasure nothing desired more longingly, and in the end, nothing better can be found† Augustine uses theology and the Christian doctrine to relate to the needs of his time and answer the questions that the circumstances had merited. He reiterates that attaining peace is the people’s ultimate purpose, be it heavenly peace or that maintained on earth. He addresses the difficulties that societies face and acknowledges that fact that it is necessary to create and maintain order and bring chaos to its end. Essentially, The City of God, as the quote has clearly embodied, becomes a sort of pacification to the troubles of the people, something Augustine does cleverly well. The City of God remains influential to those it had convinced to believe. Aristotle is arguably one of the famous philosophers who ever lived. As an early proponent of philosophy and critical thinking, his works had been based upon and studied countless times. His theories of state and political association are deemed basic and essential even as others have grown to reject and disprove them through time. One point he made when discussing about politics is the necessity for a man to not be isolated and completely independent of others. He relates, â€Å"The man who is isolated, who is unable to share in the benefits of political association, or has no need to share because he is already self-sufficient, is no part of the city, and must therefore be either a beast or god† In the creation of a polis or city-state, it is inevitable that men grow to need each other. Each individual member of a city is dependent on the other as well as on the entire association taken as a whole. Aristotle argues that a man cut off from society, being not part of it, is like a God with such great power, or an unworthy beast which has really no care at all. With this comes to mind the popular saying that, â€Å"No man is an island. † This stays true up to now and is one of the foundations of the principles of society. In building a state, the fundamental theory is important and highlighted that of its citizens being one with the state, growing and developing with it and them associating with each and every member of the state. From this, the concept of organization is emphasized and the primary building blocks of a state is laid out and achieved.

Motivation In Second Language Learning

Motivation In Second Language Learning Motivation, as other individual differences in second language learning, plays a significant role which could affect second language learning success. It is an incentive to start L2 learning and sustain the later learning process. In classroom settings, same teachers, same materials, it could be seen that even one with highly aptitudes in learning a second language could fail in its achievement if there is no adequate motivation. For the past several decades, social psychologists and educators have made much effort to study this complicated topic through different aspects. This assignment will try to give a description of key findings from literatures in this field which will mainly focus on two of the most influential approaches: Gardners motivation theory and self-determination theory (Deci Ryan,1985, 2002). And then I will present a brief critique on an empirical research which was worked by Lucas etal (2010) A Study on the Intrinsic Motivation Factors in Second Language Learning Among Selected Freshman Students. This study had found that à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.At last, I will examine that this research is helpful in understanding second language learning and teaching from my personal experience. Key Findings in this research According to Zoltan Dornyei (2005), second language learning motivation research has gone through three phrases: The social psychology period, the cognitive-situated period, and the processed-oriented period. In these three different periods, it could be found that social psychologist Gardener and his colleagues made the great contribution to their theory about integrative motivation and instrumental motivation. They indicated that second language learning is different from learning other subjects. Because it could be seen that it shows ones personal disposition and identity. For example, learning English has been a fevour for many years in China. People learn it may be in order to pass the various examinations or to communicate with westerners freely. The former one could be instrumental motivation, alternatively, the later on could be seen as integrative motivation. Integrative motivation and instrumental motivation During the social psychology period, Integrative motivation and instrumental motivation has played a influential role.The definition of integrative motivation given by Gardner and Lambert is that learning a second language is an interest to communicate with other communities which is a way to acknowledge to their people and culture. Relatively, instrumental motivation is somehow a desire to learn a second language so as to get a job opportunity or fulfill a credit points in study. The following research later on found that integrative motivation and language learning success had positive relationship at different aspects. (Clement, 1980; Gardner, 1985, 2000; Gardner, Day,MacIntvre, 1992; GardnerLambert, 1972; GardnerMacIntvre, 1991, 1993; Gardner, Tremblav,Masgoret, 1997; Masgoret Gardner, 2003). For instance, Gardner and Lambert (1972) identified that the students in French courses. They studied how their integrative motivation and instrumental motivation functioned when they learning. They found that integrative motivation played an imortant role in successful learning French. Further evidence were given by Gardner, Tremblay, and Masgoret(1997) which support the point of view. During their research, participants did multiple choice test, a doze test, a vocabulary test, a composition and grades in French who had been measured by one hundred items. Important relationship was found between integrative motivation and each second language learning achievement. Examination given by Ely (1986) studied that to what extent the integrative and instrumental motivation theory could describe motivation of learning Spanish for freshmen in one university. He indicated that validity and the significance of Gardners theory. And then Ramage (1990) identified a group of students motivation in learning French or Spanish when they finished the second year of high school studying. She also investigated their desire to keep on learning French or Spanish. She confirmed that there was a positive relationship between in interest toward the second Language culture and the willingness to continue learning French or Spanish. As it has been mentioned above, the definition of integrativeness plays a key role in Gardner and Lamberts (Gardner, 1985, 2000; GardnerLambert, 1972) dominant conceptual framework of second language learning motivation. Other researchers, inspired by this theory had made a great numbers of empirical studies from various aspects (e.g., Clement, 1980; Clement, Dornyei,Noels, 1994; ClementKruidenier, 1985; Dornyei, 1990, 1994a; DornyeiKormos, 2000; Gardner, Day,MacIntyme, 1992; Gardner, Lalonde, Moorcroft, 1985; GardnerMacI.., 1991; Schumann, 1986). To some extend, it could say that these studies supplement and enrich the understanding of relationship between second language motivation and its attitudes toward culture. It has been found a positive view for second language learners who want to integrate other communities and get contact with people. Yet, as a enigma, integrativeness has still existing difficulties for the researchers to define its nature. Gardners (2001) said that the t erm is used frequently in the literature, though close inspection will reveal that it has slightly different meanings to many different individuals (p. 1). Further studies has still be needed. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation When it turns into cognitive-situated period, Self- determination theory which proposed by Deci and Ryan provides two kinds of motivation. Intrinsic interest focous on the activity for its own sake. On the other hand, extrinsic interest based on the rewards such as points, candies, compliments, money, test scores, or grades. However, These two types of motivation are not absolutely dichotomy. It could define that intrinsic motivation (IM) is a motivation which emphasize the enjoyment of engaging in activity. Ryan and Deci(1985) suggested that the nature needs for competence and self-determination is rooted in intrinsic motivation. Whats more, they supposed that people will choose to engage to an activity which is according to their propensities. Because the degree of the activity could rise. And then with challenging those difficulties, learners will realize a sense of competence in their abilities. However, the precondition is that they could be given free opportunities to choose. Ryan and Decis (2000) hypothesis cited in Lucas etal (2010: 6) stated that no single phenomenon reflects the positive potential of human nature as much as intrinsic motivation ¼Ã…’which is defined as the inherent tendency to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise ones capacities, to explore, and to learn. Developmentalists confirmed that even without rewards, children are active and curious from the time when are born. It is so important for cognitive and social progress and that describe a main source of pleasure in life. Ryan and Deci (2000) posit that no single phenomenon reflects the positive potential of human nature as much as intrinsic motivation ¼Ã…’which is defined as the inherent tendency to seek out novelty and challenges, to extend and exercise ones capacities, to explore, and to learn. Developmentalists acknowledge that from time of birth, children, in their earliest and healthiest states, are active, inquisitive, curious, and playful ¼Ã…’even in the absence of rewards. The whole construct of intrinsic motivation describes this natural inclination toward assimilation, mastery ¼Ã…’spontaneous interest, and exploration that is so essential to cognitive and social development and that represents a principal source of enjoyment throughout life (CsikszentmihalyiRat hund e, 1993; Ryan1995 in Ryan Deci ¼Ã…’2000). Ryan ¼Ã…’Kuhl and Deci (1997) also argued that despite the fact That humans are liberally endowed with intrinsic motivaions, it is clear that the maintenance and enhancement of this inherent propensity requires supportive conditions, as it can be readily disrupted by various non supportive conditions. Thus, their theory of intrinsic motivation does not concern what causes intrinsic motivation ¼Ã…’but rather ¼Ã…’it examines the conditions that elicit and su staff n ¼Ã…’versus subdue and diminish this innate propensity. Thus, Deci and Ryan (1985) presented the Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET) as a subtheory within SDT self-determination theory that had the aim of specifying factors that explain variability in intrinsic motivation. CET was conceptualized in terms of social and environmental factors That facilitate versus undermine intrinsic motivation, being inherent, will be catalyzed when individuals are in conditions that conduce toward its expression. The study of conditions that facilitate versus undermine intrinsic motivation is an important step in understanding sources of both alienation and liberation of the positive aspects of human nature. Furthermore, CET specifies that feelings of competence will not enhance intrinsic motivation unless accompanied by a sense of autonomy (Fisher ¼Ã…’1978; Ryan ¼Ã…’1982 i n Ryan Deci.2000). To sum ¼Ã…’CET framework suggests that social environments can facilitate or forestall intrinsic motivation by supporting versus thwarting peoples innate psychological needs. Strong links between intrinsic motivation and satisfaction of the needs for autonomy and competence have been demonstrated.It is critical to remember that people will be intrinsically motivated only for activities that hold intrinsic interest for them ¼Ã…’activities that have the appeal of novelty ¼Ã…’challenge, or aesthetic value.(Ryan and Deci 2000) The term extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain some separable outcome, and thus, contrasts with intrinsic motivaion ¼Ã…’which refers to doing an activity for the inherent satisfaction of theactivity itself. In contrast to intrinsically motivated behaviors, extrinsic motivation (EM)are those actions carried out to achieve some instrumental end ¼Ã…’such as earning a reward or avoiding a punishment. This type of motivation does not necessarily imply a lack of self-determination in the behaviors performed.Ryan an d Deci (1985) and Vallerand (1987) maintained that different types of extrinsic motivation (EM)could be classified along a continuum according to the extent to which they are internalized into the self- concept (i.e., the extent to which the motivation isself -determined ). Critique on a empirical research The paper focused on intrinsic motivation factors that may help identify what specific L2 communicative skill students are more motivated to learn. The study involved 240 freshman college students from different universities and colleges in Metro Manila. A 48-item questionnaire was administered to the selected respondents. The results of the study showed that students are intrinsically motivated to learn speaking and reading skills and that they are intrinsically motivated via knowledge and accomplishment. These may suggest that students are motivated to learn these linguistic skills due to the very nature of the skills which they find interesting and relevant to them. The mastery of these linguistic skills somehow helps them achieve their learning goals which may bring benefits to them in the future. The study investigated if students are intrinsically motivated to learn L2 communicative skills such as writing, reading, speaking and listening. It also examined the factors of intrinsic motivation that may help determine why and why they are not motivated to learn those macro skills. This study adapted Deci and Ryans (1985) self-determination theory and Vallerands (1997) Academic Motivation Benefits from the research The study puts forward the reality that indeed ¼Ã…’English is a prestigious language and that students will always be interested to learn this language due to the many benefits it may bring. Their bilingual exposure at a very early stage in their lives puts the Filipino young language learner to an advantage over their Asian counterparts. It could be seen that motivation is a key component in second language learning. However, in my teaching experience, I could find some students still could be lowly motivated or even lost motivation in learning English. The reasons for this could be found by the research just discussed above. Lucas etal (2010) generated that teachers are influential in their students motivation towards their own learning competencies. Thus, it is highly important for the second language teachers to improve their own qualification of teaching continuously. Moreover, sufficient preparation for every class is needed. Students always expected to learn as much as possible interesting and helpful skills from teachers instruction. So reasonable design and arrangement of the details of classroom activities could help students achieve their goals. Firstly, factors relating to a class design should be taken into account such as the length of time, the level of students proficiency, the size of the class, teaching equipment and approaches. Secondly, it is possible that unexpected problems could happen in the process of teaching. Therefore, how to change and adapt other ways of teaching should be considered. For example, at different stages, the teachers role could be instructors or friends. Thirdly, during my classroom settings, the procedures often go by the following process: leading in, explaining, practicing and output. It could be said that each steps have their own features. Thus, it is significant to noticing activities adoption, the ways of communication and giving feedback. I found that students could get fulfillment and satisfying from a successful classroom teaching process. Thus, in other words, a teacher with more competence in teaching could help students become more confident in learning. At last, students motivation could be motivated and improve their achievement in second language learning. In addition to intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation could also function as a positive role in teaching English. Bilingual exposure in a second language environment could stimulate students extrinsic motivation through different ways. After entering WTO, it has become a heated-topic to learning English. Student extrinsic motivation have been highly strengthened when they found other people were all learning English. Relatively, it could say that if one found the other students have no interest in learning this kind of language, he or she will probably feel the same way. From another aspects, further more, it could also say that parents positive attitude towards English language and cultures of English speaking countries could generate their childrens extrinsic motivation toward English learning . Conversely, parents negative attitude could result their lack of learning . 4 how to stimulate students motivation During teaching process, teachers could combine the teaching materials and specific classroom settings to help students to establish a conducive learning motivation, for example, to develop learners interest in learning the language and its culture. At the same time, it is helpful if students could to change their attitudes toward learning second language. At last, they could turn their extrinsic motivation into extrinsic motivation. 4.1 to provide a good classroom environment The classroom environment is very important to language teaching. As Gardner (1981) stated that we can not actually teach students a foreign language, but only to create a suitable language learning environment for students. Good classroom atmosphere could not only make students learning actively and enhance their motivation but also could greatly improve their ability to learn. Psychological research shows that studying in a relative relax and joyful environment could maintain fine mental state and enhance ones memory. Furthermore, it is helpful for letting students thinking creatively and find their potential abilities. Conversely, if the classroom environment is tedious, the state of students learning could be poor. Consequently, negative attitudes toward learning could appear which will weaken the motivation, learning effect will not be guaranteed. In addition, the establishment of the communicative environment is also very important for teachers. It is very likely to stimulated students second language learning motivation by providing their opportunities to use language in an authentic environment. Therefore teachers should as much as possible to try to create communication opportunities and harmonious environment to improve students motivation to learn. Inspire students learning motivation through classroom activities. It could be seen that providing students successful learning experience and cultivating their intrisinc interest in activities could achieve the aim of improve students learning motivation in second language learning. there are part of students who have not been inspired by extrinsic or intrinsinc motivation in the classroom settings. For them, targeted activities could be important. Because they could find their learning interest during the participation of various and useful activities. It could say that offering opportunities for students with experience of success by designing suitable actives is a key role in second language learning achievement. 4.3 helping students to establish learning goals Learning objectives could be divided into long-term goals and short-term goals. Long-term goals could relatively ensure learners learning behavior to keep a longer time. Alternatively, achievement of the short-term goals could give students the fulfillment of learning experience, so that students can have a strong learning motivation. Therefore, according to learners different levels of learning, teacher could help students to establish specific long-term goals and short-term goals. Whats more, Long-term goals should have high standards and short-term goals must be feasible. 4.4 understand the students learning needs It is significant for language teachers to understand students learning needs so as to instruct them what they want to learn. Because it is a useful way to arouses students study enthusiasm, and cultivate their interest in learning by fulfill their thirst for knowledge. Conclusion So far, second language learning motivation is still a complicated topic which has many aspects waiting for further study It is has been widely accepted that motivation plays a very significant role in second language learning achievement. The reason for some students learning poorly mainly is that they do not have highly motivation. Motivational strategies for second language learning is important . it is obvious that teacher could not create students extrinsic motivation, but teachers attitudes towards second language and its culture could have a great effect on its development. Activities in the classroom could cultivate students intrinsic motivation. .

Eisenhower Essay -- essays research papers

The Early Years Dwight David Eisenhower was born on October 14, 1890 in Denison, Texas. He was the third of seven sons from David Jacob and Ida Elizabeth Stover Eisenhower. After his birth the family moved to Abilene, Kansas where Dwight graduated from high school in 1909. He was awarded a scholarship to West Point military academy. He was commisioned a Second Lieutenant upon graduation in September of 1915. After being stationed at Fort Sam Houston, Dwight met Mary (Mamie) Geneva Doud, and they were married on July 1, 1916. The couple had two sons, Doud Dwight Eisenhower and John Sheldon Doud Eisenhower. Doud Dwight, nicknamed â€Å"Little Icky†, was born on September 24, 1917. He died three years later ,on January 2nd,1921,of scarlet fever .Their second son was born in Denver on August 3, 1922. He married Barbara Jean Thompson in July of 1947 and they had four children. There are now eight Eisenhower great-grandchildren. Ike Takes Charge: A rise To Power In 1917, the United states joined the Allied fighting in World War I. The prospect of commanding troops abroad excited Dwight, but his superiors did not think he was ready for such a task. It didnt help matters that Dwight was a success in training others for battle. From 1915 to 1918Dwight and Mamie were sent all over the United States. Starting from Ft. Sam Houston, Dwight served in the infantry division at Camp Wilson, and Leon Springs, Texas and Ft. Ogelthorpe, Georgia. He then served with the Tank Corps in Camp Meade, Mar...

Persuasive Essay Against Capital Punishment -- Papers Death Penalty Ar

Persuasive Essay Against Capital Punishment â€Å"Kill. (Verb) To make someone or something die.† Does anyone really think they have the right to take another person’s life? Apparently yes. Perhaps we should give the judge a knife and tell her that if she has decided that the accused is guilty, she should stab him herself. Perhaps then she would hesitate. But if many people (hundreds or thousands who operate the judicial system) are involved, it spreads, or even divides the feeling of culpability among many. They may feel less guilty, especially if they believe that they are representing the whole society of their country. What makes it seem more â€Å"humane† is the official perspective of it. Death here is a matter of paperwork, not actually a case of ending someone’s life. I am absolutely opposed to the death penalty. In this essay I will try to explain why I think society should not accept this barbaric punishment. The most common argument in favour of the death penalty is that it is a deterrent, i.e. someone who has murder in mind will think better of it when he realises that he could be facing death. However, I do not agree with this. When a murderer commits a crime he believes that he will not be caught. Numerous studies have tried to prove the deterrence factor, but have been unable to. A criminal dreads a lifetime prison sentence more than, or the same as, the death penalty in any case. There are two types of murders: crimes committed on the â€Å"spur of the moment† (i.e. passion crimes which have not been planned) and pre-meditated murder. If it is a crime of passion, the murderer is not thinking of the consequences at t... ... are then disbarred. They have little incentive to fight for the case when their salary may be under  £4 an hour. Finally, who are we to play with the lives of other people? Each person is just one life – how can one life be allowed to designate when the other must finish? Man is man, not God. Only God should have a divine right over a man’s life. Man is equal to man, and for him to take on the role of a superior being can only cause chaos. I believe that it is the duty of a system of justice to protect society from criminals, either by psychological rehabilitation or by imprisoning them for life if necessary; not by murdering them. Capital punishment is used to condemn the guilty of severe crimes. This means: to teach a criminal how to be humane, they must be killed inhumanely. Does this seem logical?

What Were the Problems Facing a Newly Independent India After the Partition of 1947

August, 14, 1947 and August, 15, 1947 the Indian partition of 1947 was created and it granted Indian its freedom from its 350 year of British ruling. After India’s freedom was granted it was divided into two states which were Dominion of Pakistan later known as Islamic republic of Pakistan and Union of India later known as Republic of India. Right after the partition of 1947, it declared that it was leader or King of the state to decide if the state should follow the Muslim or a Hindu religion. This Policy separated the people of India and Pakistan, and caused a lot of hatred between both sides.This policy also cause huge problems because some states would have a huge population of Hindus, and the king would be Muslim which made Hindus follow the beliefs and religious acts of the Muslims. Since this policy was cause of the partition of 1947 it made Muslims in India to migrate to Pakistan, and Hindu’s in Pakistan migrate to India, in between this transition or migration, there were many riots, looting, and rapes which left both countries in devastation and a breakdown of the civil government.The breakdown of the civil government, made it impossible for an army to restore order preventing any crimes such as murders or arson by locals. The newly formed governments were completely unequipped to deal with migrations of such staggering magnitude, and massive violence and slaughter occurred on both sides of the border. Estimates of the number of deaths range around roughly 500,000, with low estimates at 200,000 and high estimates at 1,000,000. If there were an army to restore order there would be less people killed during this tragic event.Hindu Sindhis would have remained in Sindh following the Partition, if wasn’t for the violence that erupted, when massive amounts of Urdu speaking Muslims started pouring into Sindh. They began attacking the Hindu population. Before the announcement of the Partition, there were 1,400,000 Hindu Sindhis in their a ncestral land Sindh. However, in a space of less than a year approximately 1,200,000 Hindus Sindhis fled their homes, most of them leaving with little more than the clothes on their bodies.The province of Bengal was divided into the two separate entities of West Bengal which went to India, and East Bengal which went to Pakistan. East Bengal later was renamed to East Pakistan, and later became the independent nation of Bangladesh after the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 also known as the indo-Pakistan war of 1971. Kashmir was created in 1846 after its victory in the first Angelo-Sikh war. Kashmir was a princely state in the British Empire in India. The princely state lasted until 1948.After the Indian partition of 1947 was pass it gave princely states of India a choice to move to India or Pakistan or stay independent. The ruler of Kashmir wanted to remain independent which led to a war which is known as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 which was fought between Pakistan and Indian ov er the region of Kashmir. The war lasted a year and it was first war between the two newly independent nations. Early November 1947, India attack successfully broke through enemy defenses.Even though the attack was such an early success the Indian army suffered a setback in December of that year because of logistical problems. These problems gave the forces of Azad Kashmir to take the initiative and force the Indian troops to retreat from the Border States which the war was taken place. Azad Kashmir was also known as free Kashmir because it was part of Kashmir that was under control by Pakistanis. By spring of 1948, the Indian had another offensive to retake some of the ground that it had lost.Fearing that the war might move into Pakistan property, the Pakistani army became more actively involved. As the problem escalated more and more, the Indian leadership was quick to realize that the war could not be brought to an end unless Pakistan stops aiding the Azad Kashmir forces. The Ind ian government sought United Nations mediation of the conflict on December 31, 1947. There was some opposition to this move within the cabinet by those who did not agree with referring the Kashmir dispute to the United Nations.The United Nations mediation process brought the war to an end on January 1. The mediation force Pakistan to retreat its forces, while letting India to maintain some strength of its forces in the state to preserve some law and order. It gave Pakistan two-fifths of Kashmir and India maintaining the remind three fifths of Kashmir which included the most populous and fertile regions. This war caused 1500 soldiers died on each side. On August 5, 1965 the second Indo-Pakistani war took place. The conflict was also over Kashmir, it also started without a formal declaration of war.The war was started by Pakistan, Pakistan also though it was great timing to start this war with India because they assumed that India’s military would be unable to defend against a quick military campaign in Kashmir. The first major battle in this war between Pakistan and India took place on August 15, when Indian forces scored a major victory after a prolonged artillery barrage and took over three important mountains positions in the northern sector. A month later, Pakistan counter attacked, which moved the war near Tithwal, Uri, and Punch.This attack provoked India to thrust into Azad Kashmir. India also had other forces gain position on other mountains and eventually took over Haji Pir Pass which was eight kilometers into Pakistan territory. India’s claiming Haji Pir Pass, made Pakistani move all forces to the southern sector in Punjab, to catch Indian forces of guard which was a success and India suffered a heavy loss. On September 20th the UN passed a resolution which called for a cease fire which ended the war on September 23. India lost 3,000 and Pakistani lost 3,800 during this war.Both sides signed a declaration on January 10, 1966 which requir ed both sides to move all positions that was held during the war. The declaration also reached an agreement on the new cease fire line on June 30, 1965. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a nine month long conflict between the people of then East Pakistan and the military rulers of Pakistan, which ended in two week long armed conflict between Mukti Bahini aided by India against Pakistan in December of 1971. India intervened on behalf of East Pakistan, later Bangladesh, in its civil war with West Pakistan.The war began as the Pakistani Civil War . A conflict between the traditionally dominant West Pakistanis and the East Pakistanis whose Awami League party had won the most seats in the 1970 Pakistani election and who claimed the right to form the government. The largely West Pakistani military was called in by President Yahya Khan. After several days of rioting on the morning of March 25 the citizens of Dhaka woke to discover the city shut down by the military. Mass arrests of dissid ents began, and attempts were made to disarm the East Pakistani members of the armed forces.The Awami League was banned and its members began to flee into exile in India. As the month progressed the situation developed into a full scale civil war. The West Pakistani army began killing thousands and the East Pakistanis armed themselves forming Mukti Bahini guerilla group. Ziaur Rahman, a major in the Pakistani army formed a government in exile in India and proclaimed an independent Bangladesh. The East Pakistan Rifles, an elite paramilitary force defected and joined the rebellion. On December 3 the Pakistani air force launched sorties on eight airfields in northern India.It was based on the Arab- Israeli six day war and the success of the Israeli preemptive strike. The Indians had anticipated such a move and the raid was a resounding failure. The next day the Indian forces responded with a coordinated and massive air, sea, and land assault on East Pakistan. Against the West the India military mounted smaller probing attacks designed to pin down Pakistani forces. In the East a five pronged land assault quickly routed the Pakistani forces. The Indians repeatedly broke through Pakistani defenses and outflanked and outfought the Pakistani defenders.On December 16 the Pakistani forces in East Pakistan surrendered. The next day Indira Gandhi announced a unilateral cease fire, to which Pakistan agreed. In conclusion I think the aftermath partition of 1947 was horrible and led to many wars. As you can see three different wars took place and two of the war’s conflicts were almost the same. I felt all these problems should have been handled a little differently meaning without the wars because it led to many deaths. But in the end of the wars it reached to an agreement and most of the agreements were successful.